Incarcerating Disability: How Society-Wide Structural Violence Diminishes Justice for People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.13136/2281-4582/2019.i14.335Abstract
People with I/DDs such as autism, fetal alcohol syndrome, and general cognitive impairments are
victimized by the criminal justice system, whether they encounter it as victims or as the accused.
Although at drastically higher risk for being victimized, they are further victimized by the testimonial
injustice that prevents the crimes against people with I/DD from being investigated, and so these
victims rarely justice. In the aftermath of deinstitutionalization and growing economic disparity,
people with I/DD are disproportionately represented in incarcerated settings. Once incarcerated,
they often serve longer, harder sentences. This article provides an overview of what we know about
people with I/DD in criminal justice settings and structures and what we need to learn. Based partly
on preliminary qualitative research with adults with I/DD about their experiences with criminal justice
settings and structures, I argue that this population is falling through the cracks in an already fragile
and uneven justice system.
Riferimenti bibliografici
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Education 35.1 (2013): 3–14.
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Their Families Speak Out.” A Report on the 2012 National Survey on Abuse of People with
Disabilities. Los Angeles: Spectrum Institute, 2013. http://www.disabilityandabuse.org/survey/surveyreport.pdf.
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Intellectual Disabilities 15.2 (2002): 129–37.
Ben-Moshe, Liat. “Why Prisons Are Not ‘The New Asylums.’” Punishment & Society 19.3 (2017): 272-89.
Braaten, Ellen B. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intellectual and Developmental Disorders. Thousand
Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2018.
Breiding, Matthew J. and Brian S. Armour. “The Association between Disability and Intimate Partner Violence
in the United States.” Annals of Epidemiology 25.6 (2015): 455-57.
Brodsky, Stanley L. and Allyson D. Bennett. “Psychological Assessments of Confessions and Suggestibility
in Mentally Retarded Suspects.” Journal of Psychiatry and Law 33 (2005): 359–66.
Campbell, Fiona A Kumari. “Eugenics in Disguise? Law, Technologies and Negotiating the ‘Problem’ of
‘Disability.’” Australian Feminist Law Journal 14.1 (2000): 55-70.
Carey, Allison C. On the Margins of Citizenship: Intellectual Disability and Civil Rights in Twentieth-Century
America. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2009.
Carlson, Licia. The Faces of Intellectual Disability Philosophical Reflections. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 2010.
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Chitty, Clyde. Eugenics, Race and Intelligence in Education. London: Continuum International Publishing,
2007.
Davis, Lisa, et al. “Deinstitutionalization? Where Have All the People Gone?” Current Psychiatry Reports
14.3 (2012): 259-69.
Dooren, Kate van, et al. “Substance Use Interventions for People with Intellectual Disability Transitioning out
of Prison.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 39.4 (2015): 397–397.
Dowse, Leanne, et al. “Young People with Complex Needs in the Criminal Justice System.” Research and
Practice in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 1.2 (2014): 174-85.
Ellis, Katie. Disability and the Media. London: Palgrave, 2015.
Erevelles, Nirmala. “Educating Unruly Bodies: Critical Pedagogy, Disability Studies, and the Politics of
Schooling.” Educational Theory 50.1 (2000): 25.
Farmer, Paul. Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2003.
Fogden, Billy C., et al. “Crime and Victimisation in People with Intellectual Disability: A Case Linkage Study.”
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Friedman, Mark and Ruthie-Marie Beckwith. “Self-Advocacy: The Emancipation Movement Led by People
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Reiss and David Serlin. New York: New York University Press, 2015. 74-79.Gill, Michael Carl. Already Doing It: Intellectual Disability and Sexual Agency. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 2015.
Goffman, Erving. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. Chicago:
Aldine, 1962.
Grob, Gerald N. Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875. New York: The Free Press, 1973.
Harcourt, Bernard E. “Reducing Mass Incarceration: Lessons from the Deinstitutionalization of Mental
Hospitals in the 1960s.” SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 1748796. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research
Network, 2011. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1748796.
Haydon, Abigail A., Annie-Laurie McRee and Carolyn Tucker Halpern. “Unwanted Sex Among Young Adults
in the United States: The Role of Physical Disability and Cognitive Performance.” Journal of
Interpersonal Violence 26.17 (2011): 3476–93.
Hayes, Susan. “Missing out: Offenders with Learning Disabilities and the Criminal Justice System.” British
Journal of Learning Disabilities 35.3 (2007): 146-53.
Hayes, Susan, et al. “The Prevalence of Intellectual Disability in a Major UK Prison.” British Journal of
Learning Disabilities 35.3 (2007): 162–67.
Herrington, Verlene. “Assessing the Prevalence of Intellectual Disability among Young Male Prisoners.”
Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 53.5 (2009): 397-410.
Hinton, Elizabeth. From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Mass Incarceration in
America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 2016.
Houtrow, Amy J. “At the Intersection of Poverty and Disability: Supplemental Security Income for Children
with Disabilities Due to Mental Health Problems.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
96.12 (2015): 2094-95.
Joyce, T. A. “An Audit of Investigations into Allegations of Abuse Involving Adults with Intellectual Disability.”
Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 47.8 (2003): 606–16.
Kiefer, Thomas Joseph. “Reason and Normative Embodiment in Plato’s Republic: On the Philosophical
Creation of Disability.” Disability Studies Quarterly 34.1 online (2014).
Kittay, Eva. “Dependence.” Keywords in Disability Studies. Eds. Rachel Adams, Benjamin Reiss and David
Serlin. New York: New York University Press, 2015. 54–58.
Kittay, Eva Feder and Licia Carlson. Cognitive Disability and Its Challenge to Moral Philosophy. Chichester,
West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
Kornblau, Gabrielle. “Separate but (Still Un)Equal: Challenging School Segregation in New York City
Remodeling Sanctuary: Urban Immigration in a New Era: Notes.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 3
(2019): 641–82.
Kornhaber, Mindy L. “Historical Development of Testing.” Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education. Ed. James
A. Banks. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2019. 2147-50.
Kupers, Terry Allen. Solitary: The Inside Story of Supermax Isolation and How We Can Abolish It. Oakland,
California: University of California Press, 2017.
Mallett, Christopher A. The School-to-Prison Pipeline: A Comprehensive Assessment. New York: Springer,
2016.
Maulik, Pallab K., et al. “Prevalence of Intellectual Disability: A Meta-Analysis of Population-Based Studies.”
Research in Developmental Disabilities 32.2 (2011.): 419–36.
McCarthy, Jane, et al. “Characteristics of Prisoners with Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Difficulties:
Prisoners with Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Difficulties.” Journal of Intellectual Disability
Research 60.3 (2016): 201-6.
Metzl, Jonathan. The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease. Boston, MA: Beacon
Press, 2009.
Minkler, Meredith, Esme Fuller-Thomson and Jack M. Guralnik. “Gradient of Disability across the
Socioeconomic Spectrum in the United States.” The New England Journal of Medicine 355.7 (2006):
695-703.
Morales, Claudia, et al. “Stability of Autobiographical Memory in Young People with Intellectual Disabilities.”
Anuario de Psicología Jurídica 27.1 (2017): 79–84.Newman, Lynn, et al. Secondary School Programs and Performance of Students with Disabilities: A Special
Topic Report of Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). NCSER 2012-
3000. Cameto, 2011. http://search.proquest.com/docview/964173581/.
Palusci, Vincent J. “Epidemiology, Disability, Child Abuse, and Neglect.” International Journal of Child Health
and Human Development; Hauppauge 10.3 (2017): 227–46.
Perry, David M. and Lawrence Carter-Long. “The Ruderman White Paper on Media Coverage of Law
Enforcement Use of Force and Disability.” Boston, MA: Ruderman Family Foundation, 2016.
https://rudermanfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/MediaStudy-PoliceDisability_finalfinal.pdf.
Perske, Robert. “False Confessions from 53 Persons with Intellectual Disabilities: The List Keeps Growing.”
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 46.6 (2008): 468.
---. “Perske’s List: False Confessions from 75 Persons with Intellectual Disability.” Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities 49.5 (2011): 365-73.
Petersilia, Joan R. “Crime Victims with Developmental Disabilities.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 28.6
(2001): 655–94.
Quarmby, Katherine. Scapegoat: Why We Are Failing Disabled People. London: Granta Books, 2012.
Rembis, Michael. “The New Asylums: Madness and Mass Incarceration in the Neoliberal Era.” Disability
Incarcerated: Imprisonment and Disability in the United States and Canada. Eds. Liat Ben-Moshe,
Chris Chapman and Allison C. Carey. New York, NY: Palgrave McMillan, 2014. 139–63
Riches, Vivienne Catherine, et al. “Intellectual Disability and Mental Illness in the NSW Criminal Justice
System.” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 29.5 (2006): 386-96.
Riddell, Sheila. “A Sociology of Special Education.” The SAGE Handbook of Special Education. Ed. Lani
Florian. London: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2006.
Robertson, Caitlin E., and Jane A. McGillivray. “Autism behind Bars: A Review of the Research Literature
and Discussion of Key Issues.” The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 26.6 (2015): 719-36.
Sarrett, Jennifer C. “Revealing the Training on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities among Forensic
Mental Health Professionals: A Survey Report.” Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending
Behaviour 8.4 (2017): 176–87.
Scheyette, Anna, et al. “Are We There yet? Screening Processes for Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities in Jail Settings.” Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities; Washington 47.1 (2009): 13-
23.
Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. New York: Avon Books, 1977.
Søndenaa, Erik, Kirsten Rasmussen and Jim Aage Nøttestad. “Forensic Issues in Intellectual Disability:”
Current Opinion in Psychiatry 21.5 (2008): 449-53.
Stainton, Tim. “Reason and Value: The Thought of Plato and Aristotle and the Construction of Intellectual
Disability.” Mental Retardation 39.6 (2002): 452-60.
Stein, Ruth E.K., Michele J. Siegel and Laurie J. Bauman. “Double Jeopardy: What Social Risk Adds
to Biomedical Risk in Understanding Child Health and Health Care Utilization.” Academic Pediatrics
10.3 (2010): 165–71.
“Students from Low-Income Families and Special Education.” The Century Foundation. January 17, 2019.
https://tcf.org/content/report/students-low-income-families-special-education/.
Taylor, Danielle M. “Americans With Disabilities: 2014.” Household Economic Studies. United States Census
Bureau, November 2018.
https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2018/demo/p70-152.pdf. Last visited
5/12/2019.
Taylor, Sunaura. Beasts of Burden: Animal and Disability Liberation. New York: The New Press, 2017.
The Arc and AAIDD. “Position Statement: Criminal Justice System.” Washington, DC: The Arc, 2014.
Thornberry, Catherine and Karin Olson. “The Abuse of Individuals with Developmental Disabilities” 33.1
(2005): 19.
Trent, James W. Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in the United States. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1994.
Viljoen, Erna, et al. “Police Officer Disability Sensitivity Training: A Systematic Review.” The Police Journal:
Theory, Practice and Principles 90.2 (2017): 143–59.Whittaker, William G. Treatment of Workers with Disabilities under Section 14(c) of the Fair Labor Standards
Act. Washington, District of Columbia: Congressional Research Service, the Library of Congress,
2005.
Wood, Mary Elizabeth, et al. “Reasonable Accommodations for Meeting the Unique Needs of Defendants
with Intellectual Disability.” The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 47.3
online (2019).
Views of Culture.” Exceptional Children 76.3 (2010): 279-99.
Baglieri, Susan, et al. “Disability Studies in Education: The Need for a Plurality of Perspectives on Disability.”
Remedial and Special Education 32.4 (2011): 267-78. All websites last visited 24/11/2019.
Baker, Bernadette. “The Hunt for Disability: The New Eugenics and the Normalization of School Children.”
Teachers College Record 104.4 (2002): 663–703.Bal, Aydin, Amanda L. Sullivan, and John Harper. “A Situated Analysis of Special Education
Disproportionality for Systemic Transformation in an Urban School District.” Remedial and Special
Education 35.1 (2013): 3–14.
Baladerian, Nora J., Thomas F. Coleman, and Jim Stream. “Abuse of People with Disabilities: Victims and
Their Families Speak Out.” A Report on the 2012 National Survey on Abuse of People with
Disabilities. Los Angeles: Spectrum Institute, 2013. http://www.disabilityandabuse.org/survey/surveyreport.pdf.
Beail, Nigel. “Interrogative Suggestibility, Memory and Intellectual Disability.” Journal of Applied Research in
Intellectual Disabilities 15.2 (2002): 129–37.
Ben-Moshe, Liat. “Why Prisons Are Not ‘The New Asylums.’” Punishment & Society 19.3 (2017): 272-89.
Braaten, Ellen B. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intellectual and Developmental Disorders. Thousand
Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2018.
Breiding, Matthew J. and Brian S. Armour. “The Association between Disability and Intimate Partner Violence
in the United States.” Annals of Epidemiology 25.6 (2015): 455-57.
Brodsky, Stanley L. and Allyson D. Bennett. “Psychological Assessments of Confessions and Suggestibility
in Mentally Retarded Suspects.” Journal of Psychiatry and Law 33 (2005): 359–66.
Campbell, Fiona A Kumari. “Eugenics in Disguise? Law, Technologies and Negotiating the ‘Problem’ of
‘Disability.’” Australian Feminist Law Journal 14.1 (2000): 55-70.
Carey, Allison C. On the Margins of Citizenship: Intellectual Disability and Civil Rights in Twentieth-Century
America. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2009.
Carlson, Licia. The Faces of Intellectual Disability Philosophical Reflections. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 2010.
CDC. “Facts About Developmental Disabilities | CDC.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 17,
2018. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/developmentaldisabilities/facts.html.
Chafetz, Michael. Intellectual Disability: Civil and Forensic Issues. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Chitty, Clyde. Eugenics, Race and Intelligence in Education. London: Continuum International Publishing,
2007.
Davis, Lisa, et al. “Deinstitutionalization? Where Have All the People Gone?” Current Psychiatry Reports
14.3 (2012): 259-69.
Dooren, Kate van, et al. “Substance Use Interventions for People with Intellectual Disability Transitioning out
of Prison.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 39.4 (2015): 397–397.
Dowse, Leanne, et al. “Young People with Complex Needs in the Criminal Justice System.” Research and
Practice in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 1.2 (2014): 174-85.
Ellis, Katie. Disability and the Media. London: Palgrave, 2015.
Erevelles, Nirmala. “Educating Unruly Bodies: Critical Pedagogy, Disability Studies, and the Politics of
Schooling.” Educational Theory 50.1 (2000): 25.
Farmer, Paul. Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2003.
Fogden, Billy C., et al. “Crime and Victimisation in People with Intellectual Disability: A Case Linkage Study.”
BMC Psychiatry 16 (May 2016).
Foucault, Michel. Abnormal: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1974-1975. New York: Picador, 2003.
Fricker, Miranda. Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2007.
Friedman, Mark and Ruthie-Marie Beckwith. “Self-Advocacy: The Emancipation Movement Led by People
with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.” Disability Incarcerated: Imprisonment and Disability
in the United States and Canada. Eds. Liat Ben-Moshe, Chris Chapman, and Allison C. Carey. New
York: Palgrave McMillan, 2014. 237-254.
Gardner, William I., Janice L. Graeber and Susan J. Machkovitz. “Treatment of Offenders with Mental
Retardation.” Treatment of Offenders with Mental Disorders. Ed. Robert W. Wettstein. New York: The
Guilford Press, 1998.
Garland-Thomson, Rosemarie. “Eugenics.” Keywords for Disability Studies. Eds. Rachel Adams, Bejamin
Reiss and David Serlin. New York: New York University Press, 2015. 74-79.Gill, Michael Carl. Already Doing It: Intellectual Disability and Sexual Agency. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 2015.
Goffman, Erving. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. Chicago:
Aldine, 1962.
Grob, Gerald N. Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875. New York: The Free Press, 1973.
Harcourt, Bernard E. “Reducing Mass Incarceration: Lessons from the Deinstitutionalization of Mental
Hospitals in the 1960s.” SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 1748796. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research
Network, 2011. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1748796.
Haydon, Abigail A., Annie-Laurie McRee and Carolyn Tucker Halpern. “Unwanted Sex Among Young Adults
in the United States: The Role of Physical Disability and Cognitive Performance.” Journal of
Interpersonal Violence 26.17 (2011): 3476–93.
Hayes, Susan. “Missing out: Offenders with Learning Disabilities and the Criminal Justice System.” British
Journal of Learning Disabilities 35.3 (2007): 146-53.
Hayes, Susan, et al. “The Prevalence of Intellectual Disability in a Major UK Prison.” British Journal of
Learning Disabilities 35.3 (2007): 162–67.
Herrington, Verlene. “Assessing the Prevalence of Intellectual Disability among Young Male Prisoners.”
Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 53.5 (2009): 397-410.
Hinton, Elizabeth. From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Mass Incarceration in
America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 2016.
Houtrow, Amy J. “At the Intersection of Poverty and Disability: Supplemental Security Income for Children
with Disabilities Due to Mental Health Problems.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
96.12 (2015): 2094-95.
Joyce, T. A. “An Audit of Investigations into Allegations of Abuse Involving Adults with Intellectual Disability.”
Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 47.8 (2003): 606–16.
Kiefer, Thomas Joseph. “Reason and Normative Embodiment in Plato’s Republic: On the Philosophical
Creation of Disability.” Disability Studies Quarterly 34.1 online (2014).
Kittay, Eva. “Dependence.” Keywords in Disability Studies. Eds. Rachel Adams, Benjamin Reiss and David
Serlin. New York: New York University Press, 2015. 54–58.
Kittay, Eva Feder and Licia Carlson. Cognitive Disability and Its Challenge to Moral Philosophy. Chichester,
West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
Kornblau, Gabrielle. “Separate but (Still Un)Equal: Challenging School Segregation in New York City
Remodeling Sanctuary: Urban Immigration in a New Era: Notes.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 3
(2019): 641–82.
Kornhaber, Mindy L. “Historical Development of Testing.” Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education. Ed. James
A. Banks. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2019. 2147-50.
Kupers, Terry Allen. Solitary: The Inside Story of Supermax Isolation and How We Can Abolish It. Oakland,
California: University of California Press, 2017.
Mallett, Christopher A. The School-to-Prison Pipeline: A Comprehensive Assessment. New York: Springer,
2016.
Maulik, Pallab K., et al. “Prevalence of Intellectual Disability: A Meta-Analysis of Population-Based Studies.”
Research in Developmental Disabilities 32.2 (2011.): 419–36.
McCarthy, Jane, et al. “Characteristics of Prisoners with Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Difficulties:
Prisoners with Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Difficulties.” Journal of Intellectual Disability
Research 60.3 (2016): 201-6.
Metzl, Jonathan. The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease. Boston, MA: Beacon
Press, 2009.
Minkler, Meredith, Esme Fuller-Thomson and Jack M. Guralnik. “Gradient of Disability across the
Socioeconomic Spectrum in the United States.” The New England Journal of Medicine 355.7 (2006):
695-703.
Morales, Claudia, et al. “Stability of Autobiographical Memory in Young People with Intellectual Disabilities.”
Anuario de Psicología Jurídica 27.1 (2017): 79–84.Newman, Lynn, et al. Secondary School Programs and Performance of Students with Disabilities: A Special
Topic Report of Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). NCSER 2012-
3000. Cameto, 2011. http://search.proquest.com/docview/964173581/.
Palusci, Vincent J. “Epidemiology, Disability, Child Abuse, and Neglect.” International Journal of Child Health
and Human Development; Hauppauge 10.3 (2017): 227–46.
Perry, David M. and Lawrence Carter-Long. “The Ruderman White Paper on Media Coverage of Law
Enforcement Use of Force and Disability.” Boston, MA: Ruderman Family Foundation, 2016.
https://rudermanfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/MediaStudy-PoliceDisability_finalfinal.pdf.
Perske, Robert. “False Confessions from 53 Persons with Intellectual Disabilities: The List Keeps Growing.”
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 46.6 (2008): 468.
---. “Perske’s List: False Confessions from 75 Persons with Intellectual Disability.” Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities 49.5 (2011): 365-73.
Petersilia, Joan R. “Crime Victims with Developmental Disabilities.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 28.6
(2001): 655–94.
Quarmby, Katherine. Scapegoat: Why We Are Failing Disabled People. London: Granta Books, 2012.
Rembis, Michael. “The New Asylums: Madness and Mass Incarceration in the Neoliberal Era.” Disability
Incarcerated: Imprisonment and Disability in the United States and Canada. Eds. Liat Ben-Moshe,
Chris Chapman and Allison C. Carey. New York, NY: Palgrave McMillan, 2014. 139–63
Riches, Vivienne Catherine, et al. “Intellectual Disability and Mental Illness in the NSW Criminal Justice
System.” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 29.5 (2006): 386-96.
Riddell, Sheila. “A Sociology of Special Education.” The SAGE Handbook of Special Education. Ed. Lani
Florian. London: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2006.
Robertson, Caitlin E., and Jane A. McGillivray. “Autism behind Bars: A Review of the Research Literature
and Discussion of Key Issues.” The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 26.6 (2015): 719-36.
Sarrett, Jennifer C. “Revealing the Training on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities among Forensic
Mental Health Professionals: A Survey Report.” Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending
Behaviour 8.4 (2017): 176–87.
Scheyette, Anna, et al. “Are We There yet? Screening Processes for Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities in Jail Settings.” Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities; Washington 47.1 (2009): 13-
23.
Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. New York: Avon Books, 1977.
Søndenaa, Erik, Kirsten Rasmussen and Jim Aage Nøttestad. “Forensic Issues in Intellectual Disability:”
Current Opinion in Psychiatry 21.5 (2008): 449-53.
Stainton, Tim. “Reason and Value: The Thought of Plato and Aristotle and the Construction of Intellectual
Disability.” Mental Retardation 39.6 (2002): 452-60.
Stein, Ruth E.K., Michele J. Siegel and Laurie J. Bauman. “Double Jeopardy: What Social Risk Adds
to Biomedical Risk in Understanding Child Health and Health Care Utilization.” Academic Pediatrics
10.3 (2010): 165–71.
“Students from Low-Income Families and Special Education.” The Century Foundation. January 17, 2019.
https://tcf.org/content/report/students-low-income-families-special-education/.
Taylor, Danielle M. “Americans With Disabilities: 2014.” Household Economic Studies. United States Census
Bureau, November 2018.
https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2018/demo/p70-152.pdf. Last visited
5/12/2019.
Taylor, Sunaura. Beasts of Burden: Animal and Disability Liberation. New York: The New Press, 2017.
The Arc and AAIDD. “Position Statement: Criminal Justice System.” Washington, DC: The Arc, 2014.
Thornberry, Catherine and Karin Olson. “The Abuse of Individuals with Developmental Disabilities” 33.1
(2005): 19.
Trent, James W. Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in the United States. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1994.
Viljoen, Erna, et al. “Police Officer Disability Sensitivity Training: A Systematic Review.” The Police Journal:
Theory, Practice and Principles 90.2 (2017): 143–59.Whittaker, William G. Treatment of Workers with Disabilities under Section 14(c) of the Fair Labor Standards
Act. Washington, District of Columbia: Congressional Research Service, the Library of Congress,
2005.
Wood, Mary Elizabeth, et al. “Reasonable Accommodations for Meeting the Unique Needs of Defendants
with Intellectual Disability.” The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 47.3
online (2019).
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Copyright (c) 2020 Jennifer Sarrett
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